direct gov calculator carbon

Vehicle emissions can be divided into two general categories: air pollutants, which contribute to smog, haze, and health problems; and greenhouse gases (GHGs), such as carbon dioxide and methane. We’ll send you a link to a feedback form. 1.1. A carbon footprint is the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by an individual, event, organization, service, place or product, expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent. A comprehensive source on the environmental pollutants that affect human health, the book discusses human exposure through pathways including air, food, water, dermal absorption, and, for children, non-food ingesti Business carbon footprint calculator. The formula to calculate the carbon footprint of a business is simple: the result is obtained by multiplying the activity (or consumption) data by its corresponding emission factor. "This guide can be downloaded from: www.eere.energy.gov/femp/technologies/renewable%5Fpurchasepower.cfm, www.epa.gov/greenpower/buygreenpower.htm, www.thegreenpowergroup.org/publications.html, www.resource-solutions.org."--Verso. t.p. The Centre for Energy and . Welcome to the home of carbon footprinting, carbon calculators, CO 2 reduction, carbon offsetting and caring for the climate. The relative difference between the direct emissions measurements and the predicted emissions measurements was within the range of the measurement uncertainty, therefore demonstrating good agreement. Uses a bottom-up calculation approach to collect building-level data on direct fuel consumption, purchased electricity, business travel, commuting and other direct and indirect energy-use activities. Gases like CO2 (carbon dioxide), CH4 (methane), N2O (nitrous oxide), HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons), etc. Most of the calculators I tested direct you to a place where you can buy carbon offsets to offset your carbon footprint after you calculate it. 2016 data for reporting on 2015 comparative figures) the old factors can be found in our 2016, 2015 and 2014 calculators which are also still online. Carbon Footprint Calculation Methodology. The calculator will determine the direct and indirect emissions from all sources at a company when . The Greenhouse Gas Protocol (GHG Protocol) is the most widely used international accounting tool for government and business leaders to understand, quantify, and manage greenhouse gas emissions. The calculator estimates your footprint in three areas: home energy, transportation and waste. Found inside – Page 32Department for Communities and Local Government ... I can find out my Carbon Footprint using the online Act on CO2 Carbon Calculator at www.actonco2.direct.gov.uk or call the Act on CO2 helpline on 0800 512 012 I can find out how much ... If you have any comments or questions, please contact mackaycarboncalculator@beis.gov.uk. UK emissions data selector . Before we can offset your carbon footprint, we need to work out how big it is. Using the MacKay Carbon Calculator, you can create pathways to find out how we might reduce the UK’s greenhouse gas emissions to net zero by 2050 and beyond. Don’t worry we won’t send you spam or share your email address with anyone. Scope 1 emissions include direct emissions from landfills, fleet vehicles, support vehicles, heating and refrigerants. The average gross heating value of natural gas is approximately 1,020 British thermal units per standard cubic foot (Btu/scf), usually varying from 950 to 1,050 Btu/scf. The MacKay Carbon Calculator provides a model of the UK energy system that allows you to explore pathways to decarbonisation, including net zero by 2050. The carbon calculators are provided free to use Show you care for the environment and communities across the World by Carbon Offsetting. Area based contracts shall make appropriate arrangements to co-ordinate the receipt of carbon returns from subcontractors prior to submission. Direct tailpipe emissions Direct tailpipe emissions from motor vehicles for each sector are estimated per dollar of revenue based on the Economic Input-Output Life Cycle Assessment model (EIO-LCA) as shown in Table 1. Don’t include personal or financial information like your National Insurance number or credit card details. The MacKay Carbon Calculator. The calculator was a key part of the Government's multi-media Act on CO2 campaign, which aimed to raise awareness and understanding of the link between carbon dioxide, climate change and everyday activities. This approach ignores everything we know about human cooperation. In this book, leading economists describe an alternate model for climate agreements, drawing on the work of the late Nobel laureate Elinor Ostrom and others. Map showing a busy flight day in May 2019 when . You can support Carbon Offsetting Projects that both tackle climate change and support impoverished communities across the world. Found inside – Page 62Energy Emission Calculators Building type Heating Lighting Appliances Other World Wide Fund for Nature , UK footprint.wwf.org.uk X Х ... [ US only ) Considers the overall energy bill British government actonco2.direct.gov.uk/ [ UK only ! The calculator was a key part of the Government's multi-media Act on CO2 campaign, which aimed to raise awareness and understanding of the link between carbon dioxide, climate change and everyday activities. Based on preliminary analysis, the global average atmospheric carbon dioxide in 2020 was 412.5 parts per million (ppm for short), setting a new record high amount despite the economic slowdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Don’t include personal or financial information like your National Insurance number or credit card details. All of the projects you can support by offsetting your CO 2 emissions through ClimateCare include the highest-quality credits from carbon reduction and avoidance projects around the world, whilst also delivering significant sustainable development impact . The average carbon footprint for a person in the United States is 16 tons, one of the highest rates in the world. With ClimateTrade, organizations can easily calculate their CO2 emissions.. Older engines might lose a few percent . Found inside – Page 205Useful calculators include: • Acton CO2: http://actonco2.direct.gov.uk/ This has been set up by the UK Government and allows you to ... It will also provide an action plan with tips on how and where to reduce your carbon emissions. Based on this formula, there are several methodologies to calculate the carbon footprint (UNE-ISO 14064, GHG Protocol, etc). Found inside – Page 571A related idea (technically, a sub-footprint) is the Carbon Footprint, developed to help people calculate the amount of CO2 they emit through their energy use and ... government's own calculator at www.actonco2.direct.gov.uk/). Calculator. Here we focus on the impacts of a carbon tax on the price of each type of fuel, with a new fuel price calculator that translates carbon tax levels into price changes for fossil fuels. The department will also assist others in the provision of . Burning a litre of diesel produces around 2.62 kgs of carbon dioxide, whereas petrol has a lower carbon content and produces about 2.39 kgs . The social cost of carbon (SCC) for a given year is an estimate, in dollars, of the present discounted value of the damage caused by a 1-metric ton increase in CO2 emissions into the atmosphere in that year; or equivalently, the benefits of ... . The MacKay Carbon Calculator project is a collaborative project between BEIS and 4 main partners, Energy Systems Catapult, Climate Media Factory, Cambridge Architectural Research (CAR) and Climact. A carbon footprint is the most suitable estimate of the greenhouse gases produced during the direct and indirect operation of a product or business. Found inside – Page 261Figure 11.8 Screenshot of Finnair's carbon calculator Source: Finnair 2009 Table 11.2 Examples of carbon calculators ... in CO2) Government, UK, http://carboncalculator.direct.gov.uk/index.html (per individual or household, ... The UK government already requires a carbon management plan for any tenders over £1 million and large companies and banks are following their lead. This file may not be suitable for users of assistive technology. In total, the amount of carbon dioxide you produce is your "carbon footprint." While it seems like a lot of work to figure out your carbon footprint, it is actually easier than you think. Both versions contain levers of decarbonisation, 15 in My2050 and 45 in the detailed version. Note: Due to rounding, performing the calculations given in the equations below may not return the exact results shown. In theory, it sounds like a great idea. Use this interactive calculator to find out—and take action. It helps highlight where you can make big carbon savings on specific construction projects. 0.14g CO2/page view. Everyone's carbon footprint is different depending on their location, habits, and personal choices. The first version of FD-CIC was released with the GREET® model In fact, the jump of 2.6 ppm over 2019 levels was the fifth-highest annual increase in NOAA's 63-year record. This new edition incorporates revised guidance from H.M Treasury which is designed to promote efficient policy development and resource allocation across government through the use of a thorough, long-term and analytically robust approach ... There are many ways to live a lower carbon lifestyle, and every one of them has a real impact on tackling climate change. It is also important that users refer to an e-learning package. Aboveground carbon content data for forest ecosystems are sourced from the Carbon Online Estimator (COLE), which provides domestic forest carbon characteristics. We also use cookies set by other sites to help us deliver content from their services. use change, are estimated separately and added to the direct CIs calculated in keeping with the approach described herein. Presenting a comprehensive framework for carbon management, this book: Provides definitions, concepts, benefits, and background information regarding carbon footprint analyses Discusses the GHG accounting methods Outlines the general ... The current version of the carbon emissions calculation tool page can be found on the National Highways website. Faced with the heated discussion about the climate crisis and the urgency of taking effective actions to reduce the consequences of global warming, many companies are beginning to work on their ESG (Environmental, Social and Government) objectives.Among which is the "calculation of the carbon footprint", which . Carbon removal approaches occupy a spectrum, from managed ecosystems to engineered solutions. Household Carbon Footprint Calculator. This means that the carbon intensity value assigned to each fuel reflects the GHG emissions associated with that fuel's production, transport, storage, and use. The EPA Simplified GHG Emissions Calculator is designed as a simplified calculation tool to help small business and low emitter organizations estimate and inventory their annual greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. On completion suppliers must generate an export file using the tool and send this, along with any queries, to sustainability@highwaysengland.co.uk. Direct Gov Calculator. Just click the 'Offset' button after you have finished your calculation. For a website with 10,000 monthly page views, that's 211 kg CO2 per year. There is a great deal of embodied energy in the buildings and houses of Australia. This is your guide to building, buying or renovating a home. It shows how to create a comfortable home with low impact on the environment, economical to run, healthier to live in and adaptable to your changing needs. Water companies planning future water resources options through the 25 year planning period are required to build-in the shadow price of carbon to the economic analysis. A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases (including carbon dioxide and methane) that are generated by our actions. 26 USC 45Q: Credit for carbon oxide sequestration Text contains those laws in effect on November 2, 2021. . 2014 - 2016. Found inside – Page 187Second, carbon management is an approach being promoted in various sectors, both as the result of government and regulatory encouragement, ... Food and Rural Affairs, Carbon Calculator: http:// carboncalculator.direct.gov.uk/index.html. Uncertainty estimates for the direct emissions measurement of carbon dioxide were on the order of ±4%. The Guardian's carbon calculator works out the emissions on flights from the world's 100 busiest airports, as well as from selected UK airports. You can support Carbon Offsetting Projects that both tackle climate change and support impoverished communities across the world. Burning a litre of diesel produces around 2.62 kgs of carbon dioxide, whereas petrol has a lower carbon content and produces about 2.39 kgs . Test Your web page. We use emissions factors and averages for Australia. With the ARPA-E support, we have developed a tool - the Feedstock Carbon Intensity Calculator (FD-CIC). Figure 1 shows direct measurements of atmospheric CO 2 from 1975 to April 2018 in parts per million (ppm), or the number of carbon dioxide molecules per million molecules of dry air. Launched in July 2014, NASA's Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 (OCO-2) was designed to give scientists comprehensive, global measurements of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Coasts. So you can see that there is a lot of energy, both direct and indirect, used to make clay bricks. Solar Home Systems installed. 1.4.2 Firing Practices3-5 A lock (LockA locked padlock) or https:// means youâve safely connected to the .gov website. Briefly, a Carbon Calculator is a computer programme that calculates your Carbon Footprint. The simplest way to calculate tailpipe emissions of CO 2 is to measure fuel consumption. Many of our daily activities cause emissions of greenhouse gases. The amount of carbon dioxide emitted per gallon of motor gasoline burned is 8.92 x 10-3 metric tons, as Simply spend some money and — voilà! Found inside – Page 22The Carbon Footprint Calculator: What's My Carbon Footprint? page opens with the Get Started tab displayed. ... UKActOnCOs http://actonco2.direct.gov.uk/ carboncalc/html Carbon Calculator www.mycarbonfootprint.eu/index. cfm?language=en ... New and used cars. The calculator results are based on scientific data. Found inside – Page 62The Government is therefore undertaking a programme of work intending to look into these issues in more detail . ... CO2 calculator , produced in partnership with the EST ( which will be available at http://www.direct.gov.uk/acton CO2 ) ... Globally, the average is closer to 4 . For example, 1 molecule dry air to 0.000400 molecules of carbon dioxide is expressed as 400 ppm. By offsetting through our carbon footprint calculator you agree to our terms and conditions.. Here's how offsetting your emissions helps. For an all-round estimate of your direct greenhouse consumption, the government's Act on CO2 calculator is a good starting point. Anybody or group can get their carbon footprint. Suppliers must report on the carbon associated with activities undertaken on behalf of Highways England by downloading and completing the Highways England carbon tool on a quarterly basis . An official website of the United States government. Miles per dollar Most of the calculators I tested direct you to a place where you can buy carbon offsets to offset your carbon footprint after you calculate it. Use our calculators to look at the size of your emissions. Found inside – Page 1023Carbon calculators commonly work by accepting user inputs characteristic of individual behavior and by returning an amount of CO2 emitted as a direct result of such behavior in the form of a user's carbon footprint [16]. You select your level of ambition of decarbonisation effort using the levers, ranging from Level 1 - minimal effort, to Level 4 - maximum effort. Found insideAccessed September 2009 at www.climatefundsupdate.org/graphs-statistics/pledgeddeposited-disbursed Directgov. Climate change: a quick guide and Carbon Calculator at www.direct.gov.uk accessed 24 June 2008 Grubb, M. and Vrolijk, C. This page has been withdrawn because it’s out of date. This Excel spreadsheet provides more information about the model used by the online versions of the calculator: MacKay carbon calculator (Excel version) (XLSM, 13.4MB). Both versions contain levers of decarbonisation, 15 in My2050 . about 5.1 GT per year. To help us improve GOV.UK, we’d like to know more about your visit today. It will take only 2 minutes to fill in. For an explanation of the calculator's assumptions and sources, see the Assumptions and References page . Introduction to Carbon Removal. Direct Gov Calculator is a popular carbon footprint calculator that has been developed by United Kingdom Government. litres of drinking water produced. Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, Calculate the carbon dioxide equivalent quantity of an F gas, Environmental reporting guidelines: including Streamlined Energy and Carbon Reporting requirements, Achieving net zero carbon emissions through a whole systems approach, Greenhouse gas reporting: conversion factors 2021, Coronavirus (COVID-19): guidance and support, Transparency and freedom of information releases. It will take only 2 minutes to fill in. In some instances, the calculation is fairly straightforward: each dollar of a carbon tax translates into (approximately) an additional penny per gallon in the . Carbon Direct has experts in all of these areas. Found inside – Page 226Direct measurement of oxygen profiles and denitrification rates in soil aggregates. Soil Sci. ... Carbon implications of windfarms located on peatlands: Update of the Scottish Government carbon calculator tool. http://www.scotland.gov. The average web page tested produces 1.76 grams CO2 per page view. We find the average carbon footprint per volume of drinking water and wastewater emissions to be 0.46 kg CO2e/ m3 and 0.38 kg CO2e/ m3, respectively—equivalent to 2.1% of total emissions from . Carbon dioxide emissions per therm can be converted to carbon dioxide emissions per thousand cubic feet (Mcf) using the average heat content of natural gas in 2015, 10.37 therms/Mcf (EIA 2017). U.S. government—sets forth a whole-of-government approach to conserving global terrestrial carbon sinks, leveraging a range of diplomatic, policy, and financing tools. Found inside – Page 1134In the computing community, personal carbon footprint calculators have emerged to assist individuals in determining their carbon footprint—the “total greenhouse gas emissions caused directly and indirectly by a person, organization, ... In just a few clicks you can support carbon offsetting projects that both tackle climate change and support impoverished communities around the World.. Just click the 'Offset' button after you have finished your calculation As well as offsetting them right now, you can take other measures to shrink your carbon footprint directly. If you want to use older data (eg. Contact Us to ask a question, provide feedback, or report a problem. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Found inside – Page 1134In the computing community, personal carbon footprint calculators have emerged to assist individuals in determining their carbon footprint—the “total greenhouse gas emissions caused directly and indirectly by a person, organization, ... in the case of a direct air capture facility, any carbon dioxide which-(i) is captured directly from the ambient air, and (ii) is measured at the source of capture and verified at the point of disposal, injection, or utilization. However, this instrument required constant calibration, readings were subject to drift, and TWA determinations were difficult to calculate. 85 percent) and varying amounts of ethane, propane, butane, and inerts (typically nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and helium). Worldwide. This is the approximate amount of carbon dioxide produced by the activities of business, organisations, individuals, families, etc. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock A locked . You can change your cookie settings at any time. Found inside – Page 129(Accessed 25/08/2018) DEFRA (2017) Act on CO2 carbon calculator. London: Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. http://actonCO2.direct.gov.uk. Accessed 10 Dec 2017 Global Footprint Network (2007) Ecological footprint ... Just click the 'Offset' button after you have finished your calculation. Back to the Energy and the Environment home page. Over. Discover. Found inside – Page 149Also, by 2009, the well-known CO2 calculators were those of the UK Department of Energy and Climate Change5 and the ... calculators 5 See http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121015120517/ http://carboncalculator.direct. gov.uk/ ... It works by plugging information into the computer programme about how we . Found inside – Page 171... direct.gov.uk to use the carbon calculator Q779 Chairman : There is a huge amount of goodwill which has been launched today . on this Committee towards the Bill . I have never worked with a group of people who so badly want it Q778 ... Key points: The carbon calculator is an on-line tool that allows users to work out their individual or household's carbon footprint. Carbon footprinting is intended to be a tool to guide the relevant emission cuts and verifications, its standardization at international level are therefore necessary. are often accounted for in the calculation. Of this annual total of about 6.5 GT of carbon, roughly 3 to 3.5 GT are removed from the atmosphere by the oceans, leaving a net input of about 3 GT of carbon per year. Greenhouse gases, including the carbon-containing gases carbon dioxide and methane, can be emitted through the burning of fossil fuels, land clearance and the production and consumption of food, manufactured goods . Found inside – Page 121... from online carbon calculators Benchmarking examples Act on CO2 http:// carboncalculator.direct.gov.uk/index. ... in household of same type: 14.09 tonnes per year Carbon Footprint http:// www.carbonfootprint. com/calculator.aspx ... This data selector search allows you to find UK data. It's much more detailed than the WWF one above and takes into account fuel bills, appliances and travel. Particularly at the options appraisal stage. Found insideI am indebted toLaurieMichaelisoftheQuakerLivingWitnessproject,andthis food calculator isderivedfromthe inspired carbon calculator he wrote for ... a good starting point can be found at www.direct.gov.uk/en/Environmentandgreenerliving, The levels of ambition are based on views expressed by over 100 expert stakeholders, including academics, non-government organisations, industry bodies, operators and consultants. If you use assistive technology (such as a screen reader) and need a The goal of the direct fuel LCAs performed under the LCFS is to identify and quantify all material and energy flows in a fuel's life cycle, to calculate the GHG emissions Found inside – Page 600UK Government Digital Service: Carbon Calculator. http://carboncalculator.direct.gov.uk/index.html (Site accessed 1 August 2010). Duffy, R. and Fearne, A. (2009). Value perceptions of farm assurance in the red meat supply chain. Teacher resources for My2050 (Key Stage 4) and the detailed version (Key Stage 5), developed with the Royal Geographical Society, are available from the RGS website. version of this document in a more accessible format, please email, Carbon Tool E-Learning Training Programme, Sustainable Development Strategy and Action Plan, 2050 calculator costs inclusion: results and methodology, Greenhouse gas reporting - Conversion factors 2013, 2012 greenhouse gas conversion factors for company reporting, Greenhouse gas reporting - Conversion factors 2014, 2012 guidelines to Defra/DECC’s GHG conversion factors for company reporting: Methodology paper for emission factors, Coronavirus (COVID-19): guidance and support, Transparency and freedom of information releases. Use our carbon footprint calculator to add up the carbon emissions from your food, energy, transport and shopping. Twelve basic sectors in the calculator are mapped to U.S. business sectors in EIO-LCA. This carbon calculator is provided free to use Show you care for the environment and communities across the World by Carbon Offsetting. Popup descriptions explain what the levels represent in terms of behavioural change or infrastructure investment. Found inside – Page 73The rest is “indirect,” meaning not literally under an individual's direct control, but can be influenced by lifestyle ... program that you can use to calculate your carbon footprint: https://www3.epa. gov/carbon-footprint-calculator/. Found insidecalculators are ranked at the Climate Outreach & Information Network (COIN) site, www.coinet.org.uk. ... Log on for the carbon calculator at the government-run Act on CO 2, www.actonco2.direct.gov.uk You don't even have to log on. Direct and Well-to-Wheel Emissions. Direct methane emissions released to the atmosphere (without burning) are about 25 times more powerful than CO 2 in terms of their warming effect on the atmosphere. As a consequence of using default factors and estimated tonnages, carbon footprints obtained from this calculator might be expected to be within +/-25% of the true value. We know things aren't normal right now, so tell us what you'd normally get up to. However, this typically relates to the direct energy costs of 6 Carbon Calculator for Land Use and Land Management Change from Biofuels Production (CCLUB) Users' Manual and Technical Documentation prepared by Hoyoung Kwon1, Xinyu Liu1, Jennifer B. Dunn1, Steffen Mueller2, Michelle M. Wander3, and Michael Wang1 1 Systems Assessment Center, Energy Systems Division, Argonne National Laboratory, A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Both categories of emissions can be evaluated on a direct basis and a well-to-wheel basis. Calculation. Watch & follow our 5 min daily COP26 Video Blogs Helping you to reduce carbon emissions and energy costs all year round. Official websites use .gov In only a few minutes using our carbon footprint calculator, you can estimate your carbon emissions and how many trees it take to offset them. A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. — a chunk of your emissions has been offset by some renewable energy or tree planting project in a developing country. We use some essential cookies to make this website work. 9,100. apprentices realized 1,157 projects. Overall fuel economy trends have prompted some energy conservationists and environmentalists to call for increasing the Corp. We provide your company with solutions for effective engagement in sustainability and climate protection. Key points: The carbon calculator is an on-line tool that allows users to work out their individual or household's carbon footprint. For achieving the internationally recognised carbon neutrality standard (PAS 2060) you will need to calculate most of your scope 3 emission. Coastal erosion, flood defences, bathing water quality ANL/ESD/12-5 Rev. There are several carbon calculation standards out there, but 99% of companies will end up choosing the GHG Protocol. Simply spend some money and — voilà! The Carbon Footprint Calculator has been designed to help UK based SMEs measure their corporate emission footprint following GHG Protocol Guidance, including direct emissions from fuel and processes (Scope 1 emissions) and those emissions from purchased electricity (or Scope 2 emissions) for the assets they operate. The calculator is named in honour of the late Sir David MacKay who was the driving force behind the first UK 2050 calculator: Tribute to Sir David MacKay (PDF, 85KB, 2 pages). Boat registration, boat safety and river levels. To help us improve GOV.UK, we’d like to know more about your visit today. 0.14g CO2/page view. For a website with 10,000 monthly page views, that's 211 kg CO2 per year. • New York Times bestseller • The 100 most substantive solutions to reverse global warming, based on meticulous research by leading scientists and policymakers around the world “At this point in time, the Drawdown book is exactly what ... For larger and more complex measurements we recommend our Carbon Advisors . Calculate your footprint. carbon footprint related to water supply only and not the whole life cycle costs. Scope 3 emissions include purchased goods and services, capital goods, business travel, employee commuting . Estimates are based on geographic location, local objects such as buildings that can cast a shade . How much carbon dioxide is produced per kilowatthour of U.S. electricity generation? To reach the stated goals of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and leading businesses, we must deploy a portfolio of methods over the coming decades. You can search for new and used cars to find: fuel consumption and CO2 emissions (by make and model) vehicle tax information (by make, model, registration date and current tax . Simplified GHG Emissions Calculator. 130,000. When entering information base it on 12 months for each category. We’ll send you a link to a feedback form. The calculator will determine the direct and indirect emissions at all sources in the company when activity is entered into various sections of the workgroup. Suppliers must report on the carbon associated with activities undertaken on behalf of Highways England by downloading and completing the Highways England carbon tool on a quarterly basis, with an option of submitting monthly. This equaled about 0.92 pounds of CO2 emissions per kWh. News stories, speeches, letters and notices, Reports, analysis and official statistics, Government data, Freedom of Information releases and corporate reports. Found insideCalculate your carbon footprint Numerous online tools are available for calculating your carbon footprint the way Aplin ... Act on CO2 Calculator: www.carboncalculator.direct.gov.uk Carbon Footprint: www.carbonfootprint.com Terrapass: ... IPCC Report on sources, capture, transport, and storage of CO2, for researchers, policy-makers and engineers.

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